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The TEACHER'S Handbook 



A GUIDE TO TEACHERS 
FOR USE IN THE SCHOOLS 

OF 

NEW YORK CITY 



^ LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 

MAY 181922 

OOCUMENTS D'.v:>''^- 



Notice of Omission from the Teacher's 
Handbook. 

The copy of the official rating blank and the 
copy of the individual teacher's report have been 
omitted from the first edition of the Teacher's 
Handbook, .because printing difficulties would 
have caused delay and prevented the distribution 
of the books together with the distribution of the 
blank forms to the schools for use for the term 
ending January 31, 1922. 



Uep'^ 



THE TEACHER'S HANDBOOK 

A Guide for Use in the Schools of the City of 
New York 



Adopikd by the Board of Supesintendents 
September 20, 1921 



Department of Education 

The City of New York 

Park Avenue and Fifty-Ninth Street 

1921 



BOARD OF EDUCATIOI^ 

Anning S. Prall, President 
Harry B. Chambers George J. Ryan 

John A. Ferguson Arthur S. Somers 

Mrs. Emma L. Murray M. Samuel Stern 



SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS 

William L. Ettinger 



BOARD OF SUPERINTENDENTS 



Andrew W. Edson 
William McAndrew 
Clarence E. Melenev 
William T. O'Shea' 



Edward B. Shallow 
Edgar Dubs Shimer 
Gustave Straubenmijller 
John H. Walsh 



HANDBOOK COMMITTEE 

Associate Superintendent William J. O'Shea, 

Chairmar 

District Superintendent John P. Conroy 

Principal Jessie B. Colburn 

Principal Olive M. Jones 

Principal Jacob Theobald » 



JHE TEACHER'S HANDBOOK 
New York City 

Contents 

Suggestions to teachers 

Copy of rating blank 

Copy of rating report for individual teacher 

Excerpts from Board of Education by-laws and 
Superintendents' rulings 

Excerpts from Retirement Law 

Blank pages for school or personal notes 



PART I 



FOREWORD 

This handbook is the outgrowth of a desire for 
a better understanding between the teaching and 
the supervising staff of the largest city public 
school system in the world. 

The individual district superintendent in New 
York City now ministers to the educational needs 
of a community twice as large as the city of 
Albany, a number which approximates the total 
school enrollment of cities having a population 
of twenty-five thousand. Numbering as we do 
an army of 25,000 teachers, charged with the 
education of a host of 900,000 pupils, it is not 
surprising that there is ever present the danger 
that the individual will be lost in the multitude. 
A short score years have witnessed the growth 
of our educational system to twice its former 
size without a relative increase in supervising 
officers. It has become increasingly difficult to 
bring about that intimate first-hand contact be- 
tween teacher and supervisor, which is so nec- 
essary to a high morale. As there is every pros- 
pect that the numbers will continue to increase, 
it would seem tim^ely to strengthen by the printed 
page that closer relationship which the pressure 
of numbers is making more difficult to maintain. 

To the young teachei", entering upon the 
threshold of his profession, the complex school 



machinery of the large city must be bewildering. 
It is the common testimony of those who join our 
ranks, after having taught in other comm.unities, 
that they pass through a rather extended, uncom- 
fortable period of adjustment before our daily 
routine is fully comprehended. Even our ex- 
perienced teachers are at times at a loss to know 
what is officially required of them. The very 
by-laws, rules, and regulations of the Board of 
Education that bear upon their v\^ork have but 
a hazy existence in their minds. 

Therefore, from the standpoint of sound man- 
agemient, which seeks to prevent rather than to 
punish violations, it would seem v/ise to state 
definitely, and in form readily available to the 
teachers themselves, those by-laws, rules, and 
regulations which define the teachers' duties, 
responsibilities, and opportunities. 

A concise forniulation of the aims and pur- 
poses that should control in the day's v/ork v/ill 
tend to unify, to harmonize, and to make more 
efifective the efforts of teachers and principals. 
The teachers, v/ho are required to meet a satis- 
factory standard of performance, as well as the 
supervising officers, on v/hom rests the respon- 
sibility of passing upon the quality of the teach- 
ers' services, need to have before them the com- 
mon basis upon which such a standard rests. 

We have faith in the soundness and in the high 
idealism of our present educational procedure. 
The true worth of any school system is deter- 
mined largely by the quality of the service ren- 
dered by the class teachers. If they are imbued 
vvath the same aims and purposes that should 



actuate their leaders, accomplishment will be but 
little short of the aims themselves. 

This booklet, it is hoped, will, in its spirit of 
helpfulness, strengthen the bonds between the 
teacher and the supervisor. Its purpose is to 
make the necessary evaluation of service not 
merely a routine matter but, rather, a method of 
insuring the professional growth of teachers and 
the improvement of teaching. 

CHAPTER I 

IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS IN RE- 
PORTING ON THE SERVICE OF 
TEACHERS 

For some years past, there have been repeated 
requests for a revision of the system of rating 
teachers by literal symbols: A, B plus, and B, 
representing degrees of satisfactory service; C 
and D, indicating unsatisfactory service. At the 
same time, teachers and principals have long be- 
lieved that excellent classroom work should re- 
ceive greater credit for higher licenses than here- 
tofore. 

The absence of a uniform standard for de- 
termining different degrees of service, and the 
many varying personal factors involved, have 
made it difficult to secure from principals a uni- 
form judgment as between teachers of the same 
school and between teachers of different schools. 

It has been equally difficult for the Board of 
Examiners to interpret the literal symbols with 
reasonable accuracy. 

8 



In the haze o£ general indefiniteness as to the 
exact meaning of the symbols employed, there 
has arisen no little confusion, followed by an in- 
sistent request for the clarification and simplifi- 
cation of all ratings and reports. 

The practice as regards the appraisal of teach- 
ers' services shows great diversity throughout 
the larger cities of the Unites States. Between 
those who would measure v/ith a micrometer 
the various qualitative and quantitative elements 
that enter into the teacher's work and those who 
would put the ban on all measurements, even 
the crudest, there is a wide range of opinion. 

Measurements need, however, be no more ac- 
curate than is necessary to meet the purpose for 
which they are made. It v/ill be agreed that, as 
a business proposition, the citizens of New York 
are entitled to an accounting from time to time 
as to the work done by the teachers. Particu- 
larly is this true where salary increments are 
given from year to year. To meet this funda- 
mental obligation, it is sufficient, we believe, to 
characterize service as either satisfactory or un- 
satisfactory. 

In place of the five literal ratings, — ^A, B plus, 
B, C, and D, representing various degrees of ser- 
vice, — we need but the two general characteriza- 
tions, — satisfactory and unsatisfactory, — under 
v/hich the former literal ratings were subsumed. 
At the same time, teacher and supervisor should 
be thoroughly and definitely acquainted with the 
more important elements that enter into the 
teacher's work. This definite formulation is given 
on page 57 under the five captions : Professional 



Attitude, Instruction, Discipline, Personal At- 
tributes, and Routine. 

If, however, the record of the very successful 
teacher contained nothing beyond the bare state- 
rnent of satisfactory service, there would not be 
sufficient basis for determining credit for ex- 
cellent class work. It becomes necessary, then, 
to record those respects in which the work of 
teachers is particularly commendable, so that not- 
able achievements may be considered as having a 
bearing on promotion. Moreover, the teacher is 
entitled to the protection that records of excellent 
service afford. Therefore, specific provision is 
made for reporting exceptional work in the ele- 
ments outlined on page 57. 

In like manner, when work is reported as un- 
satisfactory, the specific respects in which weak- 
nesses have been shown must be definitely stated 
in substantiation of the report and in justice to 
the teacher concerned. 

On the rating blank, "Exceptional Service'* is 
to be noted in column 5, and ''Specific Weakness" 
in column 6. See inserts following page 57. 

Column 5 should be reserved for stating those 
subjects or qualities or attributes in which men 
and women who stand out above their fellows 
excel. Such mention should be given only to 
teachers who show pronounced ability, marked 
aptitude in specific departments of v/ork, or 
special devotion along certain lines of service, so 
that when promotional opportunity occurs and in- 
quiry is made for persons particularly fitted for 
the positions to be filled, recourse may be had 
to column 5, 

10 



The rating "S*^ (satisfactory), unaccompanied 
by entries in columns 5 and 6, would indicate that, 
in the principal's judgment, the person rated is 
an acceptable teacher, faithful in the performance 
of duty, but not pre-eminent for expert know- 
ledge and practice, and also without marked de- 
ficiencies. 

A "U" rating must be explained in column 6. 
The reasons given for the unsatisfactory rating 
must be such as can be justified by the rating of- 
ficer. Detailed explanation may be made on the 
reverse side of the blank. 

Minor weaknesses (which should be called to 
the attention of the teacher during the term), al- 
though they are not serious enough to warrant 
a ''U" rating, should be entered in the space pro- 
vided under ''Comment" on the teacher's indi- 
vidual blank. This should also be done when the 
service is of so good a quality that the principal 
desires to recognize It, although it is not of suffi- 
cient pre-eminence to justify noting in column 5. 

The face of the teacher's individual blank must 
contain an exact copy of the record as entered on 
the official rating blank. 

In recording teachers' service under this plan, 
only the large essentials of good teaching have 
been listed. No claim is made that this list is 
exhaustive or that other captions might not be 
added. 

Professional Attitude, Instruction, and Dis-. 
cipline should be considered majors in determin- 
ing the general rating. The sub-headings v/ill 
serve as a guide to principals for indicating to 
teachers specific weakness or special excellence. 

U 



In order to define the terms used, a brief ex- 
planation of each of the captions is offered. Be- 
cause of their brevity, these explanations can be 
suggestive only. The teacher may amplify them 
by referring to some of the many excellent pro- 
fessional works in print. 



PART II 
SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 

CHAPTER I 
PROFESSIONAL ATTITUDE 

A. Regularity of Attendance and Punctuality 

Long absence caused by serious illness begets 
only sympathy and helpfulness from both super- 
visors and fellow teachers, and provision can be 
made to meet this condition. However, fre- 
quently recurring, casual absences of a day or 
two demoralize classes and tend to disorganize 
the school. When several teachers are absent on 
the same day for relatively trivial causes, — slight 
indisposition, personal business, etc., — and sub- 
stitutes are not available, other teachers must 
bear a double burden, or the children must be 
sent home. .The teacher who shirks the responsi- 
bility for his class in this fashion shows a form 
of selfishness that indicates a failure to compre- 
hend the importance of his work. 

Lack of punctuality is a serious fault in any 
teacher. If he is not in his room, ready for the 

12 



day's work, before the children reach it, he in- 
vites disorder and thus mukipUes his own dis- 
ciplinary difficulties. In addition, he places an 
extra burden on the teacher who must oversee 
two rooms, and he puts the principal, who is re- 
sponsible for the safety of the pupils, in a serious 
predicament if anything in the nature of an ac- 
cident occurs. Lack of punctuality is particu- 
larly serious when the tardy teacher is scheduled 
for duty in the playground, v/here large numbers 
of children sometimes congregate before going 
to the rooms and where, consequently, responsi- 
bility for their safety is especially heavy. Be- 
sides setting a very bad example to the children, 
the teacher who frec^uently arrives after the ap- 
pointed time is guilty of selfish lack of considera- 
tion for others. 

It is the duty of a teacher to take intelligent 
care of the body. His physical condition should 
be such that he can attend to his duties regularly 
and promptly, except in cases of serious illness. 
Many slight indispositions are avoidable if proper 
attention is paid to food, rest, recreation, and 
bodily functioning. 

B. Co-operation 

Where there is true co-operation between 
teacher and supervisor, and among fellow 
teachers, and where each individual is interested 
in the welfare of the school as a whole, there de- 
velops a spirit which carries the school to suc- 
cess. Such a spirit carries over to the pupils, 
and the work of the teachers is proportionately 

13 



lightened. Co-operative work is necessary, if 
the school is to be a real federation, not a mere 
aggregation of class units. Successful co-oper- 
ation depends largely upon the attitude of the 
class teachers. 

Teachers should feel that responsibility is not 
bounded by classroom walls. If a room or the 
yard or a staircase is found unguarded, it should 
be looked after until the office can be notified 
and the teacher relieved. If a teacher new to the 
grade needs help, it should be a pleasure to offer 
it. If members of the class belong to school 
clubs, the teacher should see that they reach the 
meetings promptly. 

The co-operative spirit is shown in prompt 
attention to recess and dismissal bells, in regular 
and punctual attendance on school conferences, 
in filing reports on time, in cheerful response to 
occasional calls for help from the office, in will- 
ingness to assist in the conduct of the general 
activities of the school, in carrying out instruc- 
tions in spirit as well as in letter. 

Teachers of departmental classes owe it to 
their pupils to co-operate closely with their 
supervisors and with one another, especially in 
the matter of lesson assignments. Otherwise, 
home work is apt to pile up on certain days, and 
either children are seriously overburdened or 
some of the work is neglected. 

To sum up, the teacher who looks on the 
school as "my school," and works in a true spirit 
of interest and co-operation, becomes deservedly 
a valuable and highly appreciated member of the 
organization. 

14 



C. Social Service 

The public school of today is not only an edu- 
cational institution, but it is also a social unit, 
a community center. A city of the size of New 
York, with its heterogeneous mass of people, 
must look to its public schools for the solution 
of many of its most pressing problems. If we 
are to train citizens, if we are to instil Ameri- 
can ideals into our population, we must reach 
into the homes of our pupils. 

In fairness to themselves as well as in justice 
to the children, teachers must accept the social 
side of their problems. The hungry child, the 
child who has not had sufficient sleep, the child 
physically handicapped, the boy or girl whose 
after-school time is spent with evil companions, 
or who is overburdened with work at home, is in 
no condition to respond to the teacher's efforts. 
These children deserve sympathy and help, not 
censure, but unless the home conditions are 
known, it is possible that sympathetic help will 
not be given. Therefore, it is necessary that 
teachers know the school neighborhood and get 
acquainted with the parents in order to secure 
their co-operation in keeping children in fit con- 
dition to be taught. 

D. Volunteer Activities 

The school of to-day seeks to center the work 
of the classroom around the life of the child, not 
merely by means of the curriculum, but also 
through the after-school activities that may be 
but indirectly related to the course of study. 

15 



The voluntary participation of teacHers m tne 
management of school banks, athletic clubs, 
scouting, orchestras, glee clubs, literary soci- 
eties, debating clubs, and the many other organi- 
zations with which our schools happily abound, 
is evidence of the finer professional aspect of our 
work. Often, as in nature clubs, when the club 
life is intimately related to the requirements of 
a syllabus, the teacher receives an immediate 
return in terms of added interest and knowledge. 

At all times, the more informal contact of 
teacher and pupil made possible by these extra 
activities gives the teacher an insight into the 
life of children which the more conventional at- 
mosphere of the classroom is not apt to disclose. 
Then, too, pupils privileged to take part in these 
organizations frequently show a changed point 
of view and an added interest in the more formal 
subject matter of the curriculum that no amount 
of external pressure can secure. It is vital that 
the teacher give such service voluntarily, for 
conditions are not equally favorable in all com- 
munities, and circumstances at times prevent the 
participation of some teachers. The teacher who 
gives freely of his time and talent in behalf of 
his pupils after school hours secures an instinc- 
tive response from them that is much more effec- 
tive in improving class control than is detention 
for disciplinary purposes. 

E. Physical Welfare of the Child 

The health of a nation is no less important 
than its mental development. Enlightened com- 



munities recognize this by making provision for 
departments of health and by enacting laws to 
safeguard the health of workers. Our schools, 
too, have been assuming increased responsibility 
in this respect. Our curricula specifically pro- 
vide for physical training, play periods, and the 
teaching of hygiene. The school physician and 
the school nurse reinforce this work^ and the 
function of the teacher has begun to include 
somewhat of the diagnostic power of the former 
in discovering symptoms of the more common 
children's diseases, and somewhat of the sym- 
pathetic tenderness of the latter in securing 
remedial treatment. 

Mental alertness and concentrated attention 
are largely dependent upon the proper function- 
ing of the body, particularly of the nervous and 
digestive systems. The child that comes to 
school with an abscessed tooth or an earache is 
not in a teachable mood, and is very apt to be- 
come a disciplinary problem before the end of 
the school day. Faithful regularity in carrying 
out the routine of the morning inspection is for 
this reason a very important duty. In the lower 
grades, where children are most susceptible to 
the so-called children's diseases, thorough in- 
spection is frequently a protection both to the 
teacher and to the classmates of an ailing child, 
as well as an immediate benefit to the child af- 
fected. Kindly urging by the teacher will, at 
times, induce a boy to wear glasses when nurse 
and mother have given up in despair. The 
teacher is a powerful influence in persuading un- 
willing children, and sometimes reluctant or 

17 



careless parents, to carry out the advice of the 
school physician or nurse. This is particularly 
true where children have been recommended for 
admission to ungraded classes, sight conserva- 
tion classes, open air classes, and the like. 

Proper seating of children, as required by the 
conditions disclosed in sight and hearing tests ; 
due regard for physical comfort; good posture, 
without rigidity or stiffness ; adjustment of 
shades and ventilation, — these come at all times 
within the province of the teacher, who should 
sedulously cultivate the habit of helpful co-oper- 
ation with the school physician and the nurse in 
the interest of the physical welfare of the chil- 
dren. 

F. Loyalty 

Teachers who accept appointment in our pub- 
lic schools are inevitably obligated to be loyal 
to the state and country. Our public school sys- 
tem is the creation of our republican form of 
government. It is the legitimate meansJ of fos- 
tering and perpetuating the very spirit of our 
representative constitutional government. It is 
financed and regulated by the state. Therefore, 
the state has an undeniable right to demand, not 
merely that teachers have a knowledge of Amer- 
ican ideals, but that, by word and act, they give 
unmistakable evidence of devotion to those 
ideals. 

In a narrower sense, the best interests of the 
schools demand that teachers be loyal to their 
profession. No large enterprise in which thou- 
sands are engaged in a common service can hope 

18 



to succeed, unless there is ever present a spirit 
of mutual loyalty between those who formulate 
and direct policies and those who carry them 
out. So, too, success in our school system is de- 
pendent upon the spirit of loyalty existing be- 
tween the teaching staff and those who are 
charged with carrying out the ideals as formu- 
lated by a representative Board of Education and 
a Board of Superintendents. A lofty conception 
of loyalty does not prohibit constructive criti- 
cism given in a spirit of helpfulness through 
recognized channels. It does not imply subserv- 
ience to this or that individual, but it does imply 
such loyalty to the properly constituted author- 
ity that the most effective teamwork may be 
done. 

G. Self-Improvement 

The professional standing of teachers in a 
community depends very largely upon the suc- 
cessful efforts that teachers as a class make to- 
ward self-improvement. 

The teacher fresh from training school in- 
variably finds that the fuller significance of a 
subject is grasped only when he begins to teach 
it. During the probationary period, efforts at 
self-improvement may well be directed toward 
a more nearly complete mastery of subject mat- 
ter and of the technique of teaching. While 
courses leading to advancement or to higher 
degrees are to be encouraged at all times, never- 
theless, in the formative period of the teacher's 
experience, it must be realized that carefully se- 

19 



lected and thoughtful collateral reading along 
the line of classroom work should receive spe- 
cial attention. 

Once the classroom procedure in discipline 
and in instruction is firmly established, it re- 
mains for the teacher on permanent license to 
keep abreast of the times. Intelligent efforts at 
self-improvement prevent the teacher from fall- 
ing a prey to the deadening influence of "the 
daily grind" with its narrowing drudgery — an 
influence otherwise likely to result from con- 
stant contact with immature minds. While the 
curriculum is for the most part static, there is 
occasional call for addition, elimination, and 
modification. The accepted practice of to-day 
is very likely to be questioned to-morrow and to 
be declared obsolete the day after. Post-gradu- 
ate courses are a decided aid in insuring a pro- 
gressive attitude of mind and professional 
growth. Nor need all such courses have a di- 
rect bearing on the subject matter of the cur- 
riculum. Purely cultural studies in art, in sci- 
ence, and in literature are of value in that they 
enrich the mind of the teacher and not infre- 
quently bring to the classroom a renewed enthu- 
siasm. 

CHAPTER II 
INSTRUCTION 

A. Use of English 

The habitual use of clearly enunciated, well- 
chosen English is a vitally important factor in 

20 



the professional equipment of the teacher. The 
greater part of language training is indirect, 
and no small part comes through imitation; 
therefore, if the class work is to be successful, 
the teacher's English must serve as a model. If 
the teacher's speech is careless in pronunciation, 
enunciation, and inflection, if he is guilty of 
solecisms, if he uses slang, if he shows little 
knowledge of the shades of meaning in the 
choice of words, his influence will be harmful. 

Good speech should be almost instinctive. If 
it is not, the teacher owes it to himself, no less 
than to his pupils, to be constantly on the alert 
and to strive without ceasing toward a fine 
ideal. 

B. Knowledge of Subject Matter 

If teaching is to be effective, certain require- 
ments must be met. 

a. The teacher's knowledge of the subject 
must not be bounded by the covers of the class 
text book. In content and style, school texts 
are necessarily fitted to immature minds. The 
teacher's outlook should be broader. He should 
know his subject through collateral reading, 
and he should know it thoroughly. 

b. Teachers must recognize that the world 
moves. The alphabet, the multiplication table, 
are the same to-day as they were a hundred 
years ago ; but this is true of only a very small 
part of the body of knowledge. Constant read- 
ing is necessary if we are to keep abreast of the 
times along either professional or cultural lines. 

21 



C. Skill in TeacMne 



is 



The skillful teacher recognizes the difference 
between the science of teaching and the art of 
teaching. No amount of theoretical knowledge 
of the principles and facts which make up the 
science of teaching will alone produce a good 
teacher. With this knowledge must necessarily 
go the ability so to apply it in the art of teach- 
ing that the pupils not only master the subject 
matter presented but also form correct habits of 
thinking. 

Such skill may be analyzed into many ele- 
ments. Only the most essential elements are 
given here. 

1. Preparation 

Preparation may be of many types. It varies 
with the lesson for which it is being made. 

An important feature of the preparation for 
the day's work is a daily plan, which need not, 
however, be elaborated to a burdensome extent. 
Such a plan serves as a guide throughout the 
day, keeping the work clear, definite, and con- 
crete. It holds the many subjects within 
bounds, so that one subject is not permitted to 
encroach unfairly upon the time allotted to an- 
other. It also serves the visiting supervisor as 
evidence of adequate preparation, and enables 
him to judge fairly as to the adaptation of the 
lesson to the end in view. 

IntelHgent preparation calls for careful analy- 
sis of the topic to be taught, so as to insure 
proper sequence in presenting the various parts 

22 



of the topic. For instance, teaching multiplica- 
tion involves a distinct progress, step by step, 
and unless these steps are presented in correct 
order, the pupil does not gain a clear concept 
of the process. 

A large part of the teacher's preparation cen- 
ters in the collection of objective, illustrative 
material, suited to the various subjects of the 
curriculum. 

The blackboard, if skilfully used, is a power- 
ful ally. Graphic presentation, to be effective, 
must be well planned. 

Two or three illustrations may serve to sug- 
gest the different kinds of preparation for dif- 
ferent lessons: 

(a) Reading: The teacher should be so fam- 
iliar with the lesson that he does not have to fol- 
low the book slavishly. He should know the 
words and phrases that need explanation. He 
should be ready to divide the selections into 
thought-wholes, so that each pupil may read an 
appropriate portion instead of a certain number 
of lines or sentences. 

(b) Arithmetic: Preparation for arithmetic 
lessons involves, not only a proper choice of ex- 
amples in the order of difficulty, but also the 
making of charts, cards for seat-work, flash 
cards, etc. 

(c) Nature Study; The collection of worth- 
while material with which to vitalize the nature 
period is essential. A plant, well cared for and 
used to cultivate a love for growing things; 
a small aquarium, where the life-history of the 

23 



frog may be followed ; a few cocoons and chrys- 
alids, kept till the moths and butterflies emerge, 
will awaken in children an interest in the world 
in which they live, that neither books nor pic- 
tures can arouse, however well they serve their 
purpose. 

2. Definiteness of Aim 

Unless the teacher definitely settles in his own 
mind the point he intends to present and fix in 
a given lesson and continually returns to the 
point, in spite of any extraneous matter that 
may be introduced, little progress will be made. 
The aim of a particular arithmetic lesson, for in- 
stance, is not to teach multiplication in general, 
but to teach to multiply when there is a cipher 
in the "tens" place, or to teach the proper plac- 
ing of partial products. In a writing lesson, the 
teacher is not teaching penmanship in general, 
he is teaching the form of certain specific let- 
ters. 

The pupils also should know the aim of the 
lesson so that they may consciously work to- 
ward the goal. 

To insure the realization of the aim, the last 
few minutes of the lesson period should be used 
for a definite summary of the points presented, 
so that these shall be fixed in the child's mind in 
orderly sequence. 

3. Appropriateness of Method 

The choice of method depends largely upon 
the aim of the lesson. Whether the method 

24 



used shall be the development, the heuristic, the 
project, the socialized recitation, or some other 
type, should be settled purely by what the 
teacher is planning to do. One factor, however, 
should never be forgotten. Whatever the 
method selected, it should be so applied as to 
call for the greatest possible activity on the 
part of the pupil. One of the needs of the 
schools is to relegate the teacher to the back- 
ground and to give the middle of the stage to 
the children. In other words, the lecture 
method must be used very sparingly. 

In selecting the best method of presenting a 
lesson, whether it be the development of a new 
subject, intensive drill, or review, the teacher 
must consider not only the subject but the child 
who is to be taught. The little foreigner bred 
in a colony of aliens, seldom traveling ten 
blocks from home, with no background of 
American ideas and ideals, cannot be success- 
fully approached in the same way as the child 
who has the advantages of an English-speaking 
environment, summer travel, books, etc. The 
pupil's background, his home conditions, his 
experience, must control in large part the choice 
of method. 

4. Good Questioning 

Questioning is an art. It is one of the most 
important elements of teaching, and is either a 
great strength or a fatal weakness in classroom 
work. 

When preparing a lesson, the teacher should 
decide on the main line of questiomii]^— the 



trend and the sequence of the questions that will 
produce the result aimed at. 

In order to hold the attention of the class, the 
teacher should state the question first, then indi- 
cate the child who is to answer. The teacher 
should not repeat answers. He should train in 
concentration by refusing to accept answers in- 
audible to the class and by demanding that the 
pupils shall know the answer given. 

Questions may be judged by some such cri- 
teria as the following: 

(a) They should be simple and direct in lan- 
guage. 

(b) They should be definite and clear in 
meaning. 

(c) Generally, each should call for not more 
than one or two points in the chain of 
reasoning. 

(d) They should follow a predetermined or- 
der which develops the train of thought 
in logical sequence. 

(e) They should place the burden of thinking 
upon the pupil. 

(/) They should be so framed that the an- 
swers may not be simple affirmation or 
negation. 

5. Thoroughness of Drill 

No matter how interestingly, or in how schol- 
arly a fashion a subject is presented, unless the 

26 



"follow-up" is persistent and sufficient, little 
gain is made. 

Drill that depends purely on verbal memory is 
not a satisfactory form of drill. Wherever pos- 
sible, the associative memory should be brought 
into play. A varied method of approach is especi- 
ally valuable in review drill, which shou:ld rest 
on a much broader base than mere repetition, 
since verbal memory is not always reliable. 

An effective drill will find different angles for 
attacking the same problem, will fix the principle 
or rule in m.any different ways, and will give 
varying individual instances all leading to the 
same generalization. This type of drill must be 
continued long enough, and repeated at frequent 
enough intervals, to insure the permanency of 
the impression. 

6. Participation and Interest of Class 

Participation 

"We learn to do by doing." The greatest pos- 
sible participation of all the children is the 
measure of real success, and such success cannot 
be attained where the old type of individual ques- 
tion and answer recitation is used too largely. 
Dramatization, the project method, free discus- 
sion, the socialized recitation, are all forward 
steps in this direction. 

Interest 

Holding the interest and the attention of the 
entire class is a question both of method and of 

27 



personality. The teacher must learn to keep the 
group m the picture, even when working with 
an individual. This is not easy, but it is impera- 
tive. When attention v/anders, it can be restored 
by varying the method, or by speeding up the 
work, thus bringing the wool-gatherers into ac- 
tive participation. If the class is too large, it is 
helpful to divide it into groups and to work with 
a smaller unit. This, however, requires the 
ability so to divide one's own attention that the 
children of each group shall always feel that they 
are under supervision ; otherwise, disciplinary 
troubles result. 

The skilful use of the group method builds up 
interest, since it affords opportunity to serve both 
the Y&ry bright and the backward, as well as the 
average child. The dull children need, and have 
a right to, individual attention ; and in order that 
this may be given, the rest of the class must be 
provided for. 

To illustrate : After teaching a topic in arith- 
metic, the class may profitably be divided into 
three groups, as follows: 

(a) The very bright children, w^ho have 
grasped the subject perfectly. These may help 
the slower ones, or may read history, geography, 
or literature, or may do some other profitable 
form of advanced work. 

(b) The average children, who should prac- 
tice the work just taught, using the text or 
mimeographed slips. 

(c) The slower children, to whom the teacher 
can give individual attention until their difficulties 
are surmounted. 



■^c 



These groups will vary with different subjects, 
but a division which makes it possible to help 
the slower children without holding back or bor- 
ing the others, makes for the better progress of 
the class as a whole. In similar imanner, the 
needs of the other groups should receive atten- 
tion. 

Successful group work, in turn, presupposes 
w^ell selected and carefully prepared seat-work 
of a productive type. If this work is not well 
chosen, it wastes the child's time and h often posi- 
tively harmful. For instance, writing long lists of 
words is not only apt to produce errors in spell- 
ing, which are impressed upon the brain through 
the motor centers, but it also engenders habits of 
writing which often destroy all that has been 
taught in the penmanship period. Seat-work is 
habit- forming ; therefore, it requires careful 
watching and an intelligent choice of work both 
as to kind and quantity. The children must know 
that what they do during these periods will be 
supervised. If they find that they are simply be- 
ing kept busy, they will dawdle and become dis- 
orderly, developing both bad mental habits and 
lax discipline. 

D. Results Obtained 

The teacher must be judged, to a rather con- 
siderable extent, by results obtained, and nec- 
essarily, too, by results immediately measurable 
in terms of knov/ledge acquired. Therefore, the 
pupils must be so well grounded in the subject 
matter taught in each grade that the knowledge 
\hus gained shall serve as a trustworthy tool with 

29 



which to acquire new knowledge. The success- 
ful student is he who has power to use books as 
tools, who has acquired the habit of consulting 
them as books of reference and of using the index 
and the table of contents, who has skill in using 
the library and has formed the habit of turning 
to it for help. 

It is eminently fair to the community, to the 
child, and to the school, to require such results 
from the teacher who is adjudged satisfactory. 
Both the children and the community of which 
they are a part have the right to demand that the 
schools shall give to their pupils a thorough 
knowledge of those fundamentals of a sound edu- 
cation which shall make of them a body of self- 
respecting young citizens, not only capable of 
supporting themselves, but also capable of add- 
ing a desirable element to the life of the city, 
state, and nation, because of their intelligent 
understanding of American institutions and 
ideals and their sincere devotion to them. 

Beyond this definite purpose, the school must 
aim to give power and to fix right habits of think- 
ing and of conduct. The ultimate goal of all 
teaching, the highest duty of the school in so 
far as instruction is concerned, is to give the pupil 
a: trained intelligence which will enable him to 
stand alone, — self-reliant, needing no teacher. 

CHAPTER III 

DISCIPLINE 

Discipline does not mean "keeping order." 
Many a poor teacher can keep order. Discipline 

30 



is the sum total of the teacher's influence in train- 
ing pupils for righteous living and good citizen- 
ship. It manifests itself in school in various 
ways. 

A. Control of Class 

Control of class is dependent fundamentally 
upon teaching children consideration for the 
rights of others, and upon the teacher's justice 
and efficiency in the administration of a class- 
room. It does not always mean suppression of 
a child's impulses, but it does mean that the ex- 
pression of individual impulses can be allowed 
only within the limitations inseparable from the 
necessary size of classes in city schools. Silence, 
rigidity of position, even if the posture be cor- 
rect, and the surface appearance of attention, do 
not mean that the teacher has control of his 
class. On the contrary, all these may be obtained 
without securing control. Attention and re- 
sponse during a lesson, the neat appearance of 
both room and pupils, prompt, willing obedience 
to signals and commands, and class spirit, are 
the surest proofs of control of class. 

B. Training Pupils in Self-Control 

The conduct of a class on the stairways and 
in passing through halls, playgrounds, streets, and 
places of public assemblage, provides for an ob- 
server an opportunity to judge whether a teacher 
merely keeps order or whether he is training 
pupils in self-control. Training pupils in self- 
control consists in the development of the habit 
of cheerful, voluntary obedience to regulations, 

31 



whether the pupils are under observation or not. 
The inhibition of thoughtless impulse and also 
the control of selfish desire constitute self-con- 
trol. Such inhibition must be taught; it is not 
instinctive. 



C. Effect on Attendance and Truancy 

Regularity of attendance and punctuality must 
be established according to the law of habit build- 
ing; that is, by repetition until the act becomes 
automatic. When this particular habit is not well 
established, waste results, — waste of the oppor- 
tunities of those w^ho are absent, waste of the 
regular attendants' rights, waste of the public 
funds spent on education. The persistent truant 
affords no index of a teacher's discipline, and he 
should be removed from the class and placed 
where he can receive individual study and care. 
But no teacher can be considered a successful 
or a satisfactory disciplinarian in whose class oc- 
curs unwarranted absence on the part of any con- 
siderable number of pupils, because this indicates 
that the teacher is failing to develop an essential 
habit and is not teaching children to give an hon- 
est return for public expenditure. 

One cause of truancy and lateness lies in the 
failure to provide useful and interesting occupa- 
tion immediately upon the child's arrival in 
school. Other causes are harsh and unjust 
methods of control and the bad example set by 
the teacher's personal habits of attendance and 
punctuality. The rem.edy lies in the removal of 
the cause, in eocotrragement and pmse, as wdl 



as in appeal to honor, and emulation, and other 
proper incentives. 

D. Character Building 

Whether for evil or for good, the teacher is 
inevitably building character, for the child cannot 
go to school and remain unaffected iri character 
by the influence of his classroom. Consequently, 
it is the teacher's duty to guide toward a high 
moral standard the child's impulses and acts, to 
develop the power of resistance against evil, to 
observe companionship in play and leisure time 
and direct it beneficially, to establish habits of 
right doing in the routine of the school, so that 
these habits will be carried over into acts of 
conscious choice in other places and in later 
years. The teacher may give ethical instruction 
which may help in character formation, but 
didactic ethical instruction plays a smaller part 
in the teacher's influence on character than the 
standards he sets before pupils by his own daily 
acts, by the respect he secures from his young 
critics, and by the extent to which he practices, as 
well as develops, self-mastery. 



CHAPTER IV 
PERSONAL ATTRIBUTES 

A. Personal Appearance 

The teacher is a model that is very apt to be 
copied. Therefore, he must accept responsibility 

33 



for the influence his personal appearance has on 
the children of his class. 

Teachers should be neat but never eccentric in 
dress. An up-to-date, attractive appearance is 
a powerful aid to discipline. On the other hand, 
teachers should sedulously avoid extremes of all 
sorts. The general effect should be one of suita- 
bility to the place and to the dignity of the work. 

B. Use of Voice 

A pleasing voice can be developed by almost 
any one who will give a little time and thought 
to its cultivation. The exercises necessary for 
the attainment of this attribute are simple, and 
they mean much to the teacher from the stand- 
point of health. 

Regard for throat and lung hygiene, as well as 
for professional propriety, should make us avoid 
shrillness, harshness, and stridency of tone, which 
strain and injure the throat, and which indicate 
lack of breeding and ultimately destroy the teach- 
er's influence on the class. 

A well-modulated, forceful voice, with the 
volume that gives carrying power, should be cul- 
tivated. Modulation abolishes the monotonous 
tone which invites inattention through boredom. 
Force comes with enthusiasm for the work. 
Volume depends upon deep breathing, which is 
fundamental to health. 

C. Cheerfulness 

Remember, "The voice with the smile wins." 
The old adage, "If you bring a smiling visage to 

34 



the glass, you meet a smile," is true. Change 
^'glass" to "class," and you have the key to the 
situation. 

D. Courtesy 

Courtesy is an essential which has more than 
one aspect. It includes courtesy to superior of- 
ficers, to fellow teachers, to parents, and also to 
children. 

We demand respect from pupils ; we therefore 
owe respect to them. This is simple justice. It 
is also good practice in class management. The 
teacher who is as considerate in speaking to a 
child as in speaking to an adult rarely has to com- 
plain of impertinence. 

E. Self-Control 

Self-control is the outward manifestation of 
that inner self-direction which characterizes the 
man or woman of trained mind and good breed- 
ing. It is a vital element of success in teaching. 

Frequent loss of control over one's self in- 
volves a loss of personal dignity which should be 
intolerable to any self-respecting person. It is 
hurtful to the nervous organism, lessens the re- 
spect of the class for the teacher, and places him 
distinctly below professional rank. 

F. Initiative and Demonstrated Leadership 

Possession of initiative and leadership is an 
indication of the teacher's fitness for advance- 
ment, provided these traits are exercised so as 

35 



to bring about good teamwork, not merely in- 
dividual domination. 

Leadership that disrupts, that is destructive of 
the harmonious functioning of large organiza- 
tions such as our schools must be, is not an asset 
to the school. Leadership involves resourceful- 
ness, a large power of initiative, willingness to 
recognize and to shoulder responsibility. When 
coupled with the desire to place this equipment 
at the service of the children through the recog- 
nized channels of the system itself, such ability 
is most valuable and is certain to command recog- 
nition. 

G. Tact 

Webster defines tact as "ability to deal with 
others without giving offense" and states that it 
"implies delicate and sympathetic perception, 
especially of what is fit, graceful, or consid- 
erate." 

Tact implies thoughtful consideration no less 
than diplomacy. It is nowhere more indispens- 
able than in the school, where the teacher must 
maintain pleasant relations v/ith children, par- 
ents, and fellow teachers. 

H. Sympathy 

The true teacher is the man or the woman 
who is in sympathy with children. Unless there 
is that in the teacher's nature which puts him into 
harmony with child life, he will find it very diffi- 
cult to establish satisfying relations with his class. 

The sympathetic teacher teaches children 
rather than subjects. He establishes a contact 

36 



with the child which wins his confidence and love 
and makes him, not only willing, but anxious to 
do his work well. 

Sympathy with children enables us to enter 
into their emotional life, to see their difficulties, 
and to help solve them. Through sympathy, we 
comprehend that shyness, that inarticulateness of 
youth, which often appears to be stubbornness or 
indifference. The sympathetic attitude is the only 
one, in dealing with young people, that assures 
them of justice and fair dealing at our hands. 
This is the sympathy of understanding, not of 
sentimentalism. It does not, and must not, pre- 
clude the firmness that requires obedience and 
self-control on the part of the child. 

CHAPTER V 
ROUTINE 

A. Accuracy and Promptness in Preparing Re- 
ports and Keeping Records 

If teachers realized how the entire machinery 
of a school is often held up by the failure of one 
or two to send in reports on time, or how clerks 
are compelled to pore over long columns of 
figures in order to locate the error which pre- 
vents totals from balancing, they w^ould make 
sure that the required report reached the office 
promptly and that it was absolutely correct and 
submitted in the form indicated by the instruc- 
tions. Delay caused by inaccuracy results in de- 
lay in forwarding reports, and thus clogs work all 
along the line, from the individual school to the 
office of the superintendent of schools. 

37 



Accuracy in keeping roUbooks, record cards, 
etc., is imperative. These records are the official 
records of the school system. They may be re- 
quired as evidence in court, and if one inac- 
curacy be provedj the whole record is discredited. 
Teachers should be careful to date and to sign all 
reports. This is a matter frequently neglected 
and is a cause of confusion and inaccuracy. In- 
structions sent to teachers which will be needed 
for future reference should be carefully pre- 
served; They may be pasted in a note book or 
kept in a loose leaf binder. It should not be 
necessary to issue duplicates nor to repeat direc- 
tions for preparing standard reports and records. 

B. Classroom Administration 

Grasp of the teaching problem and organizing 
and systematizing ability, or their lack, are shown 
in classroom administration. The problem may 
be considered under two heads: the room as a 
home; the room as a workshop. 

The room as a home : — Pictures on the walls, 
a well-cared for plant in the window, a clean, 
neat floor, and a generally attractive appearance 
give the classroom the atmosphere of a cheer- 
ful, happy home. If children are to be natural 
and happy in their school relations, if they are 
to work effectively and without over-fatigue or 
friction, the physical conditions of the room 
must be cared for. Good work cannot reason- 
ably be expected from a child seated at a desk 
too high or too low for him, or with the sun 
shining in his eyes, or in an overheated or 
underheated room, or in a room without an ade- 

38 



quate supply of fresh air. Physical comfort is 
prerequisite to the best mental work. 

The room as a workshop: — Efficient admin- 
istration in this respect centers in the teacher's 
desk, where system and order should reign. The 
daily plan, the dictionary, and reference books 
should be at hand. One drawer should contain 
rollbook and record cards, syllabuses, etc.; an- 
other, perception or flash cards, etc., so that no 
delay is incurred in getting whatever is needed. 
Somewhere near at hand, ready for use, should 
be the material required for the lessons of the 
day,— maps, charts, sewing supplies, nature 
specimens, stereoscopes, or what not. The prac- 
tice of sending children out of the room to 
neighboring teachers in search of necessary 
material results in loss of time to the messenger, 
and is an unjust interruption of the work of 
other teachers. The distribution of material 
and the change of exercise need consume very 
little time, if they are carried on in orderly 
fashion. Lack of proper organization along 
these lines results in a flagrant waste of time 
and is a frequent cause of disciplinary diffi- 
culties. 

When the teacher supplements efficient man- 
agement of the room, both as a home and as a 
workshop, with careful conservation of the school 
property, a high order of executive ability is 
demonstrated. A proper appreciation of our 
duty as citizens requires that we carefully con- 
serve school property, whether it be pens, pencils, 
books, and desks, or the building itself. 



39 



PART III. 

THE BY-LAWS OF THE BOARD OF EDU- 
CATION SUMMARIZED FOR 
TEACHERS' USE 

I. Introductory Note 

To make sure that there may be no lack of 
knowledge or of proper understanding of the 
laws which govern the New York school system, 
the following digest of the by-laws of the Board 
of Education has been written. 

For several reasons, chiefly lack of space and 
a desire for simplicity, the technical and legal 
phraseology of the by-laws has not been used ; 
nor has it been attempted to give a complete 
manual of instructions such as the by-laws con- 
tain, but rather to set down for the teacher's 
ready reference those rules which all teachers 
need to know in order that they may work to- 
gether in the fullest co-operation. For instance, 
the requirements for the various salary schedules 
have not been included, since information re- 
garding them forms no part in the government of 
a teacher's conduct and can, furthermore, be 
readily obtained upon application at the office of 
the principal of the school or of the Board of 
Education. 

II. The Teacher's School Day 

A teacher's services in an elementary school 
are required for five and one-half hours per day 

40 



and for such additional time, not exceeding forty 
minutes, as may be required by the principal with 
the approval of the district superintendent. A 
teacher-clerk is required to render service for 
seven hours each school day and also on such 
other days as the Board of Education may find 
necessary. 

It is required that teachers shall be in their 
classrooms at least 20 minutes before the opening 
of the morning session and at least 10 minutes be- 
fore the opening of the afternoon session to re- 
ceive pupils and to perform such other duties as 
may be required by the principal. 

The by-laws also require that in each school 
at least one place be provided in which children 
can gather, under proper supervision and protec- 
tion from storm, before school exercises begin 
and during the noon intermission. This makes 
necessary the presence of at least one teacher 
thirty minutes before the beginning of the morn- 
ing session and of at least one teacher during the 
noon intermission, assignment to be ma,de by the 
principal. 

III. The Teacher's School Duties 

The Formal Opening of School must take place 
at the time fixed by the Board of Education with 
'the reading of a portion of the Holy Scriptures 
without note or comment. 

The Class Standing of Pupils must be regularly 
recorded and reported. Every teacher in an ele- 
mentary school must determine and record each 
pupiFs standing, basing the rating upon the pupil's 

41 



ability to take up advanced work as shown by 
success in the work already done. The rating 
must be expressed as satisfactory, by using the 
marks A, meaning excellent, B plus, meaning 
very good, B, meaning good ; or as unsatisfac- 
tory, by using the marks C, meaning poor, and D, 
meaning bad. The rating at the end of the fifth 
month should represent the pupil's standing for 
the term. The ratings given for each month must 
be regularly reported to parents or guardians on 
or before the fourth day of the succeeding month, 
except that the ratings for the month of June 
must be reported on or before the last day of the 
school term. At the end of each school term, the 
pupil's report card must be returned to him. It 
then becomes his personal property. 

Corporal Punishment, which term includes any 
unusual punishment tending to inflict physical 
injury, is prohibited in all public schools of New 
York City. Violation of this by-law must be re- 
ported by the principal to the Superintendent of 
Schools. A pupil who is found to be incorrigible, 
persistently disobedient, or by reckless depravity 
likely to demoralize a school or a class may be 
suspended by the principal according to provi- 
sions specified in the by-laws. 

Sending Children from School upon Errands 
during School Hours is permitted only in cases 
of emergency and only with the pupil's consent 
and with the authority of the principal. Only 
pupils of suitable age and discretion may be sent 
and a record must be kept of the date, occasion, 
and duration of such absence. 

Outside Occupation must not be permitted to 

42 



interfere with the duties required of members of 
the teaching and the supervising staff. 

No Private Lessons for Pay may be given in 
any pubUc school building at any time. 

Inefficient Teachers, whether the inefficiency be 
in instruction or in maintaining discipline, must 
be promptly reported by the principal to the dis- 
trict superintendent. 

No Pupil May Be Discharged except by order 
of the principal and for certain specified and well- 
established causes. 

On the Friday Preceding the Opening of 
Schools in September, teachers are required to 
attend from 9 A. M. to 3 P. M. to receive sup- 
plies and to make necessary preparations for the 
prompt opening of school on the following 
Monday. 

Any woman member of the teaching and the 
supervising staff who marries while in service 
must forthwith report her marriage, together 
with the name of her husband, to the Superin- 
tendent of Schools. 

IV. Absence Regulations 

An Exact Record of All Absences of all mem- 
bers of the teaching and the supervising staff 
must be kept in each school. For this purpose a 
time book or a system of time cards is provided. 

Non-attendance upon Any Lawfully Assigned 
Duty constitutes absence and must be so re- 
corded. Every teacher absent from duty must 
report promptly to the principal of the school 
the cause of the absence and its probable dura- 
tion. 

43 



Any Teacher Absent from School for Two 
Weeks without Leave from the Board of Super- 
intendents, or after the termination of a leave of 
absence, must be reported to the district superin- 
tendent. The report must be accompanied with 
a statement of the reasons for such absence if 
known. The district superintendent must make a 
report to the Local School Board of the district 
on teachers absent without leave. He must 
also report to the Superintendent of Schools on 
all teachers absent from school 60 days without 
leave. 

The Superintendent of Schools must report 
teachers long absent from duty, either continu- 
ously or intermittently, to the appropriate Com- 
mittee of the Board of Education. The Commit- 
tee has the power to direct the Auditor to with- 
hold all payment of salary until the Committee 
determines what action shall be taken. 

Absence for Attendance upon the Funeral of a 
Member of the Teaching Staff may be permitted 
by the district superintendent if the written re- 
quest is approved by the principal of the school, 
provided that not more than two teachers be so 
excused in schools having less than nineteen 
classes or three in schools having nineteen classes 
or more. 

Absence Caused by Extraordinary Delays in 
Transportation, if for less than half a day, may 
be excused by the district superintendent, in 
which case it shall not be considered absence 
from duty, but shall be recorded in the school 
time book. 

Absence on Account of the Requirem.ents of a 

44 



Committee of the Board of Education, of the 
Superintendent of Schools, of the Board of 
Superintendents, of the Board of Examiners, or 
of the President of the Board of Education (or, 
in his absence, the Vice-President), or on account 
of attendance at court on business of the Board 
of Education, or on account of the quarantine 
regulations of a public health officer or depart- 
ment, shall not be considered absence from duty, 
but such absence shall be recorded in the school 
timebook and on the payroll, and shall be re- 
corded in the monthly report. In the case of a 
teacher who claims that absence was caused by 
quarantine, satisfactory evidence of such quar- 
antine must be presented to the principal of the 
school in which the teacher is employed, and at 
the close of such period of quarantine a certifi- 
cate from an officer of the Department of Health 
showing the duration of quarantine must be at- 
tached to the payroll. 

Absence for the Purpose of Advocating or Op- 
posing Propositions Affecting the Public Schools 
or the public school system before any official or 
body having jurisdiction in the matter is pro- 
hibited except by express permission of the Board 
of Education or its President. 

Leave of Absence for Study or for Restoration 
of Health or for other reasons satisfactory to 
the Board of Superintendents may be obtained 
without pay for a period of one year or less b}'' 
application to the Board of Superintendents. 

Maternity Leave, so-called, may be granted 
without pay by the Board of Superintendents. 
Any married woman, member of the teaching or 

45 



supervising staff, as soon as she is aware of her 
pregnancy, must notify the Superintendent of 
Schools and must forthwith apply for and accept 
leave of absence for two years. Failure to com- 
ply with these provisions constitutes neglect of 
duty and an act of insubordination. 

The Board of Superintendents has the power 
to fix the terminal dates of all such leaves of ab- 
sence. 

Three Days for Visiting Other Schools may be 
allowed without loss of pay to any teacher who 
presents to the district superintendent a written 
request endorsed by the principal, and to mem- 
bers of the supervising staff upon application to 
the Superintendent of Schools. 

Resignation must be made to the Superin- 
tendent of Schools who must immediately notify 
the Auditor. 

One-twenty- fifth of a Month's Salary Must Be 
Deducted for Every Day of Absence on the part 
of a principal, a supervisor, or a teacher, unless 
the absence be excused, but the aggregate deduc- 
tions in any one month must not exceed the sal- 
ary for that month. ' 

All School Payrolls must be prepared in the 
schools and must be filed in the office of the 
Auditor. They cover calendar months and are 
prepared on the 15th of each month for the en- 
tire calendar month. 

Deductions for absence occurring after the 
15th of the month are made on the following pay- 
roll, except that on the payroll for August, deduc- 
tions are made for absence occurring from June 
16th to the day on which the schools close, and 

46 



on the payroll for September, from the day oa 
which school opens to September 15th. 

Full Information concerning Excuse for Ab- 
sence, either with or without pay, is given on the 
back of the form on which application for excuse 
for absence must be made. Only points of gen- 
eral interest are noted here. Excuse for absence 
with pay may be granted for the following 
causes : 

(a) Serious personal illness 

(b) Death in the teacher's immediate family 

(c) Compliance with the requirements of a 

court 

Under clause (a), the maximum time for 
which the applicants may be excused with pay in 
a calendar year is 20 days. The Superintendent 
of Schools may, in his discretion and where the 
cases are deserving ones, extend the 20 day 
period to 60 days. This by-law was enacted in 
1921, and is not retroactive. 

Under clause (b), three (3) days* absence may 
be excused with full pay. "Immediate family" 
shall include parent, child, brother, sister, grand- 
parent, grandchild, husband, or wife. The ap- 
plication shall state the relationship of the de- 
ceased to the applicant and state the date on 
which death occurred. No deduction shall be 
made on the payroll provided the principal shall 
receive from the teacher a written statement of 
the facts regarding the absence, shall attach same 
to the payroll, and note the absence thereon, 

47 



Under clause (c), absence may be excused 
with full pay, if the applicant actually attends 
court under subpoena as a witness in a case to 
which he is not a party. The subpoena or other 
evidence of attendance at court shall accompany 
the application. 

Applications for excuse for absence with pay 
shall be approved or disapproved, in the case of 
elementary school teachers and principals, by the 
principal and the district superintendent; in the 
case of high school or training school teachers, 
by the principal and the district superintendent 
assigned to high schools and training schools; in 
the case of vocational school teachers, by the 
principal and an associate superintendent ; in the 
case of teachers of special branches, by the 
director or supervisor and the district superin- 
tendent. Applications for excuse with pay for 
absence caused by personal illness must be ac- 
companied by a physician's certificate in the form 
prescribed by the Board of Superintendents, and 
in addition, by a physician's affidavit if required 
by the Local School Board or by the Board of 
Superintendents. Applications for excuse for ab- 
sence with pay may be made from time to time 
by principals and teachers but no application shall 
be considered or granted which is made more 
than six (6) months after the termination of the 
absence unless the Board of Superintendents shall 
determine otherwise. In case of an absence ex- 
tending from one calendar year into another, the 
application for excuse for the period prior to De- 
cember 31st shall be made within six (6) months 
after said date, unless the Board of Superintend- 

48 



ents shall determine otherwise. Applications for 
a different calendar year must be made on a 
separate blank. No excuse for absence with 
pay shall be granted in advance. 

V. Promotional Opportunities 

Teachers are appointed by the Board of Edu- 
cation upon recommendation by the Board of 
Superintendents. Recommendations are made 
from eligible lists prepared by the Board of Ex- 
aminers. 

The Superintendent of Schools issues a tem- 
porary license which is made permanent at the 
end of three years if service is satisfactory. This 
temporary license may be revoked for cause at 
any time within this period. 

No attempt is here made to enumerate the vari- 
ous kinds of licenses issued on the recommenda- 
tion of the Board of Examiners or to give the 
by-law provisions as to eligibility for them. 
Full information can be obtained from the sec- 
retary to the Board of Examiners, 500 Park 
Avenue. 

The license held by elementary school 
teachers, kindergarten through the 6B grade, is 
known as license No. 1. The salary for the first 
year of service is $1,500. The annual increment, 
if the service is satisfactory, is $125. The maxi- 
mum, which is reached after 11 years, is $2,875. 

Holders of license No. 1 who desire to ad- 
vance are afforded many opportunities to do so 
if they meet the eligibility and examination re- 
quirements. In general, the elements that enter 

49 



into the determination of eligible lists for higher 
license are : Length of service, teaching record, 
professional courses, written and oral examina- 
tions. The promotion license entitles the teacher 
to teach in the 7th to 9th year grades, with a 
minimum salary of $1,900, yearly increment of 
$150, and a maximum of $3,250. On a par with 
this license is that for special classes. Addi- 
tional opportunities for promotion include the 
positions of assistant to principal or principal 
of elementary schools ; assistant teacher or first 
assistant in high schools. These are also subject 
to competitive examination requirements. 

In few school systems does a merit system o£ 
promotion offer as many opportunities as it does 
in New York City. 

THE TEACHERS' COUNCIL 

On July 9, 1913, the Board of Education 
passed a resolution approving a plan for a Teach- 
ers* Council. The plan is given in full in the 
minutes of the Board of Education for June 11, 
1913, and in a publication, called "The Teachers' 
Council," issued by the Board of Education in 
1921. 

It is composed of forty-five (45) representa- 
tives from such voluntary teachers* organizations 
as were in existence March 1, 1913, and of such 
other teachers* organizations as may be recog- 
nized by the Board of Education. 

The Teachers* Council has a two- fold func- 
tion : 

1. To furnish information and to give the 
opinion of the teaching staff (principals and 



teachers ) , upon questions submitted by the Board 
of Education or by the Board of Superintendents. 

2. To introduce recommendations concerning 
any of the problems affecting the welfare of the 
schools and of the teaching staif. 

At the meetings of the Board of Education, 
representation is given to the Teachers' Council 
through the president, the vice-president, or 
other officers of the Teachers' Council in order 
of rank. The representative has the right to 
speak on all matters relating to educational policy 
but not to vote. The Teachers' Council is pro- 
vided with necessary office space and with secre- 
tarial and clerical assistance. 

THE TEACHERS' RETIREMENT SYSTEM 

The present Teachers' Retirement System was 
established by state law in 1917, displacing the 
Public School Teachers' Retirement Fund, which 
had proved insufficient to meet the demands 
made upon it. 

Under the old law, funds had been derived for 
the most part, and in about equal amounts, from 
teachers' absence deductions, one percent of 
teachers' salaries, and five percent of all excise 
moneys. In time, receipts from these sources 
were inadequate, and thus further retirements 
were impossible, until the present law, which is 
financially sound, was enacted. The Teachers' 
Retirement System of New York City has be- 
come the model throughout the country for other 
retirement systems, for both public and indus- 
trial institutions. 

51 



The underlying Ideas of the Teachers' Retire- 
ment System are: (a) That the teacher and the 
city assume equal responsibility, actuarially de- 
termined, in providing the money which is to 
secure the retirement benefits; (b) That this 
money is currently placed to the credit of the 
individual teacher's account, leaving no doubt 
as to its availability when retiremxcnt allow- 
ance becomces due; (c) That the teachers, 
through their elected representatives, share in 
the management of the system by the Board of 
Retirement. 

In recognition of the fact that many teachers 
had contributed for years to the old fund, and 
that no adequate return could be made of the 
funds so contributed, the law makes a distinction 
betvv^een teachers who were in the service at the 
time of the enactment of the new law and those 
v/ho entered subsequently. The former are 
termed 'Tresent Teachers;" and the latter, 
*'New Entrants." 

Each teacher is required to fill out a detailed 
statement concerning age and previous service 
on a blank which is provided by the Auditor of 
the Board of Education. This statement of serv- 
ice must be filed with the Board of Retirement 
on appointment, even though the holder of the 
license exercises the privilege, granted by the 
law, of waiting to become a contributor until 
the temporary license be made permanent. The 
filing of a beneficiary blank at the time when 
the teacher becomes a contributor will save the 
family of a deceased member the time, trouble, 
and expense of securing letters of administra- 



j^ 



tion later on. The transfer of a teacher to an- 
other school or to a higher position calls for n© 
action as a contributor to the Retirement Sys- 
tem. 

Contributions by the individual teacher can be 
used only for the teacher's benefit and for the 
benefit of no one else. They are held intact, to 
be used in the event of retirement, or to be re- 
turned in case the teacher leaves the service. In- 
terest is credited to the contributor at the rate 
of four percent compounded annually. 

Service Retirement. Teachers may retire orj 
demand after 35 years of service, or on reaching 
65 years of age. At 70 retirement is com- 
pulsor}^ Present Teachers may retire after 30 
years of service upon a reduced allowance. New 
Entrants seeking service retirement must have 
had to their credit 20 years' service in New York 
City in addition to meeting the requirements pre- 
viously stated. 

Disability Retirement. Retirement for dis- 
ability may be secured after 10 years' service in 
New York City, upon recommendation by the 
Medical Board of the Board of Retirement. 

Retirement Allowance. The retirement al- 
lowance is made up of two parts : It comprises a 
pension by the city, and an annuity paid out of 
the fund accumulated by the deductions from the 
contributor's salary. 

The pension granted by the city amounts, in the 
case of disability retirement, to 20 percent of the 
average salary; and, for service retirement, to 
25 percent of the average salary. The salary for 
the last ten years is used in determining this 

53 



average. In the case of Present Teachers who 
had service prior to August 1, 1917, five-seventh? 
of one percent additional is granted for each 
year of such prior service. This is in considera 
tion of the contributions paid into the old fund 
Thus a teacher who had fourteen years of prior 
service will receive, from the city, pensions of 30 
percent and 35 percent respectively for disability 
and for service retirement. The pension paid 
by the city is in no ^vay affected by the rate of 
contribution paid by the teacher. 

The annuity which will be paid out of the 
teacher's contributions will depend upon the 
amount contributed, length of service, and age 
at the time of retirement. 

Death Benefit. Upon the death of a teacher 
who is eligible for service retirement at the time 
of death, all contributions made are returned to 
such teacher's estate; and, in addition, the city 
pays a death benefit equal to the last half year's 
salary. 

Rates of Contribution. New Entrants are 
required to contribute a rate computed to give 
them full allowance of at least one-half average 
salary on service retirement. Rates of contribu- 
tion applicable to New Entrants are printed on 
the folder of instructions given to New Entrants. 
Present Teachers are not required to pay rate? 
which will provide full half pay retirement al- 
lowance, but may reduce their contril^ution to a« 
low as 3 percent, or to such a rate as will insure 
half average salary upon attaining age 65, if that 
age is attained after more than 35 years of ser- 
vice. 

54 



By Regulation of the Board of Retire- 
ment, Application for Retirement must be 
made upon the regular forms furnished by the 
Board of Retirem.ent, to be obtained only by the 
contributor desiring retirement, on personal or 
written application. 

Members of the system contemplating retire- 
ment should inform themselves as to the various 
options open to them at the time of retirement. 
These options, as well as other information, are 
fully described in various circulars, issued by the 
Secretary of the Board of Retirement and kepi 
on file in the office of the principal. 

The Board of Retirement meets in regular ses- 
sion on the fourth Tuesday of each month. The 
calendar for each meeting closes one week before 
the meeting. The office of the Board, located 
in the Municipal Building, is open from 9 to 5 
every day, except Saturday, when the hours are 
9 to 12. 

The Members of the Board of Retirement 
Are : 

The President of the Board of Education 
The Comptroller of The City of New York 
Two members appointed by the Mayor, one of 

whom must be a member of the Board of 

Education 
Three teacher-members elected by the members 

of the Retirement System 

The first Thursday of May each year is the day 
fixed by law for the election of school delegates. 
The detailed procedure for the completion of the 

55 



election of the teacher-members is given in Sec- 
tion 1092 of the Greater Nev/ York Charter as 
amended by Chapter 303 of the Laws of 1917, 
and in the Minutes of the Board of Education 
for May 9, 1917. This detailed procedure is 
contained in the Manual of the Board of Educa- 
tion which is on file in the principal's office. 



56 



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